STUDIA ORIENTALIAPUBLISIIED BY TTIE FINNISH ORIENTAL SOCIETY
9l
Kerala Bratrmins in TransitionA Study of a Namputiri Family
by
Marjatta Parpola
HELSINKI 2OOO
MarjaraParpolaKerala Brahmins in Transition. A Study of a Nampútiri FamilyStudia Orientalia Vol. 91. 2000
Copynght @ 2000 by the Finnish Oriental Society,
Societas Orientalis Fennicq
c/o Instituæ forAsian and African Su¡dies
P.O.Box 59 (Unioninkatu 38 B)00014 Univenity of Helsinki
FINLAND
Editorial Board:
Jaaklco Hämeen-Annila (Arabic and Islamic Studies)
Tapani H arvia¡z¿¿ (Semitic Studies)
Arli Hurslcainen (African Studies)
JulwJønhune¿ (Altaic and East Asian Sodies)P etteri Koskilcallio (Rrblication Secretary)
Kaj Ôhrnberg (Secretary of the Society)
Heikki Palva (Arabic Linguistics)
Asla Parpola (South Asian Studies)
Símo P arpola (Assyriology)
Reín Raud (Japanese Studies)
rssN 0039-3282
ISBN 951-938G48-5
Gummerus PrintingSaarijär-vi, Finland 200 1
PREFACE
I got my introduction to the lndian subcontinent in January-May 1971, when,
together with our two daughters aged 5 and 2,I followed my Indologist husbandAsko Parpola on his ftrst field trip to that a¡ea. This experience made me radicallychange my future plans and I became a student of general ethnology and
archaeology æ the University of Helsinki. I staned working in the ethnography
section at the National Museum of Finland n 197 4.
From l97l to 1983, going to the field had to remain a dream for me for familyand employment reasons. The support from the Academy of Finland for myhusband's proþt 'Domestic rituals of the Jaiminîya Sãmaveda' included a grarit
for me to assist him in the field-work and in fhe arrangement of the field material in1983 and 1985. I continued field study in 1990, 1992, and 1995-96,not assisting inthat project any more, but concentrating on my own research. The Nordic Instin¡teof Asian Studies financed my retum air ticket to Kerala in 1990. I direct my thanksto these two institutions. However, I have done most of my research at home and inthe field as a hobby during my arurual leave and other leisure time without anyfinancial help. For that reason my work has repeatedly had to remain dormant forlong periods of time.
I wish to thank my husband for leading me to India and to my subjert, and forhis invaluable advice in questions of Indology. Likewise my Indian informants fortheir patience, hospitality, and thei¡ laborious attempts ro satisfy my curiosity. Ithank Matti Sarmela and Jukka Siikala for advice given in their semina¡s. I also owethanks to otso Kantokorpi, Peneri Koskikallio, Anna-Maria viljanen, and KajÖtrmUerg for thei¡ help in ttreoretical or practical problems. I thank Henri Schildtfor measuring Ravipuram and drawing its floor plan as well as the maps of Kerala,Michael vollar for revising my English, and Juri Ahlfors, påúvikki parpola andPekka Jussila for advice in problems conceming computer technology.
My healty thanks go to Pauline Kolenda for reading the manuscript for thispublication, and for giving me many helpful suggestions conceming Indian anthro-pology and style of presentation. I also thank Karen Armstrong for reading themanuscript for my licentiate's dissertation and for giving valuable advice; Leashamgar-Handelman and Don Handelman for shaking off the dust from an earlydraft, and bringing it to active preparation by giving me useful suggestions; v. K.Ramachandran and Madhura Swaminathan for personal encouragemenq and Valen-
vt
tine Daniel, who looked æ my field description in 1989, suggested some reading
and assu¡ed me thatthe material could be used, apart from my museum work foranindependent study as well.
I know that I am not as deeply inæresæd in a theoretical angle as my advisors
might wish. None of these illustious scholars are responsible for the shoræomings
of the result
Helsinki, in August 1999,
Marjatta Parpola
Note on orthography and transliteration
While speaking of pan-Indian matters, I have, as a rule, used the Sanskrit orthogra-
phy for names of gods and other concepts, while tlre conesponding orthography ofMalayalam, the language of Kerala is used when speaking about speciñcally Kerala
contexts. Generally,I have used the standad international tanscription system in
Indian ærms and names. The English spelling is followed in geographical names,
and Indian names and terms that have become curent in English, and the names that
Indian authors use of themselves. ln citations the spelling chosen by ttrc authors is
often reproduced, but in othercases the inæmational transcription is adopted for the
sake ofclarity.
CONTENTS
Preface
Note on ortlngraphy and transliæration
List of figures
I.INTRODUCTION
l. Auvrs oprræ PRESENTSTUDY
2. IIson¡c¡r"BAcr(GRorJ¡{D
The Vedas and Hinduism
Kerala and its Bralmins, the Nampütiris
Ancienttimes
The Second CêraEmpire
The mini-kingdoms and Nampütiri power
British rule
The ïVest and the nationalist movement in IndiaRadical rcforms in Kerala
tr. ETHNOGRAPFtrC DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS
5. PnysIc¿¡-¡¡¡o socIALsETr]Nc
Settlement and cultivation in KeralaPanjal village
T1rc jãtis
vvixi
2
3
3. IvfsTHoDs A¡TDFIELÞwoRK
Studying an ancient literate civilizationFocus on the family and household
Sources and field-workSources
The focus of my workOur way of life among the NampttirisField methods
4. IrrnooucronycoNsrDERATloNsABourpuRlrr, poLLuIloN, AnDRITUAL 57Hierarchy andpower 57IVhat is ritual? ó8
35
35
39
404046
48
54
9
9
t313
t4l520
23
26
70
7t7t72
74
The Nampätiri mamß and theirtemples
Sphere of life of the Nampûtiris
6. Tlæ rn¡ornox¡r Bi{sls oFpouiER: Tlm r¡¡oGeneral development in Kerala
Family land
Ownership of cultivated land
Cultivating thepaddy
Luck, loss, problems andnew chances
7. DolæsrrcsplcsThe house and compound as a microcosmos
The Panjal Nampütiri compound
The space outdoors
Buildings in the compound
Rooms
Fiuings and fumishings
Stages of life and cyclical activities
Ownership of tenitory and privacy
Othercastes
S/ill the microcosmic near+ompleæness last?
8. N4Eno¡mFAMILYCategories of Nampätiris
Grãmaand gotra
Stan¡s groups
Stages in thelife of BralminmalesSix generations
Ancestors
IR and his generation
IR's children and their generation
IR's grandchildren and their generation
Profits and losses
9.'lVom¡orrr{E FA¡úILY
Purity of women
Friends
Unmaniedgirlshe-pubenyTira4lu-lcalyâ4a4r or the rite of the first menstn¡ation
Educæion
85
91
93
93
95
96
99
ll0ll3l13tt7tt7t22129
t37t4t142
r43t4t47t47147
148
t52160
160
163
1ó8
169
t7lt75t75178
180
180
181
189
MarriageWithin the caste
Ouæide the caste
Age of marriage
DowryI-ove marriage
Non-Vedic maniage ceremonies
Wives
Co-wivesRespect and subjugation
ChildrenHousehold routines of Ravipuram women
Namputiri women's ritual practices
WidowsFrom purdah to multiple, yet limited, options
I 0. I¡rrn¡nre PoLLUTToN
Indirect and touching pollution
Birth pollutionMenstrual pollutionDeath pollutionThe temple is not a place for those who are under a pollution
I l. Fooo, DRINK At'¡D srIMUt-ANTs
Raw maærials and recipes
Rules relaæd to eating and drinking
Rules concerning particular consumables
Women and old men are conservative in their diet
I 2. PSRSoNAL AppEARANcE
General attitude towards personal appearance in the light ofancient texts
Life stages and d¡ess in the light of ancienr rexts
Nampütiri bodycare and adomment
Bath
Hai¡ and nails
Mouth hygiene
Marks and colours on the face and body
Nampútiri dress and omaments
Dress
Omaments
The functions and change of Nampùtiri dress and adomment
l9l192
197
20r204
206207
209
209
2tr2t4215
217
229
230
?33
233
237
240
242
243
245
246
250
257
261
263
265266270270
277
281
282
287
287
299
307
13. Is P¡¡.u¡r. ¿, N¡¡rætirru rry¡¿cs?
Distanoe pollutionInærcaste relations, fuktip and dãna
Joint and separate culn¡ral efforts ofthe castes
Vfesæmization and globalization
Caste, class andpolitical power
14. Corqcus¡ons
ASSREVIATIoÌ{s oF FREqUEITLY MENTIottED ÆRsoNAL NAIIIES
E¡euneronv LIsroFNATwETER¡\ts AND NAMES
BTeUmRAPHY
Appel¡p¡æs
l. Sãnkara-Sqti 1.12.4 in Sanshit2. The lvlalayalam prose commentary on S-anlca¡a-Smrti
1.12.4 by Ti. Si. ParamêSva¡an Mässa¡ava¡lcal
3. An annotated Engtish translation of Sankara-Smr,ti 1.124by Asko Parpola
4. Setikara's ó4 n¡les quoted by Logan, with Fawceü'sminor changes and comments
5. Examination of Sankara's 64 rules as tarislated andgrouped by S. Venkiøsubramonia lyer
6. Kerala customs according to Gundert
Nop(
311
3ll3t732t326329
335
347
349
393
403
N3
405
407
4n
4r4420
4n
cover:
LIST OF FIGURES
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
t7.18.
19.
20.2r.22.
23.-24.
25.
26.-28.
29.-30.
31.
32.
33.
34.35.
36.-37.
38.
39.40.
41.
42.
Water-vessel /<it¿fi (drawn by Henri Schild$
Map of Kerala 4
Nampätiri boys being taught Sãmavedic chant 10
T\e agnicaya¡n¿ ritual 12
Old Nampätiri reading a newspaper 30
Nampütiri studying his palmJeaf manuscripts 36r9Vinding the cotton sting for a marriage badge 49
Caster family at work 59
Map of Panjal village in the early 1960s 73
Village goldsmith at work 80
The l^aks.mr--Nãrãyaqta temple in Panjal 86
Village scene with paddy fields and c¡aftsmen's houses in Panjal 86
Namputiri performing apúja in the Ayyappan temple 89
Women worshipping the idol in the Ayyappan æmple 89
Men with tlreir æams of animals preparing the soil for planting 100
Tractor ploughing the fields 100
Labourer strengthening the paddy-field walls with mud 104
Women replanting seedlings 104
Women threshing paddy with rods 107
Rubber sheets drying ll2Nampütiri house I l8Granite image of a cobra and granite snake temples l2lNamputiri houses 124Thatched house with palmleaf walls 126Making of sun-burnt bricks, and a house built of them 128
Plan of a Nampûtiri house: the ground floor 130
Meal in the old style 132Television-watching 132Preparing food on the floor 135
Modem kitchen and eating space 135
l"heannaprãSanante 153
The Mumm¡kkãttu Mãmannu kin group 162Family photograph 163
Namputiri lady dressed in the traditional way 178
Namputiri bride and bridegroom 193
Nampûtiri with his two wives 210Namputiri ladies performtnganñ,ëdyam 218
l.2.-3
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
nt
43. Nampútiri lady liehtine the evening wicks
4. Informants and resea¡chers
45. Staning tlre curds
46. T\esonfuarta¡wnæ47. Nampûtiri performing his moming riual48. The holy tank of aNampütiri house
49. Nampütiri lady taking her bath in ttte tank
50. Women's hairstyles
51. The loincloth of an Ãdhyan lady
52. The loincloth of an Ãsyan lady
53. Vfashenvoman waiting outside the verandah
54. Nampätiritransacting with his family goldsmith
55. Disrics of Kerala
22t234u8269272
272
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