(497)

Das System der Leistungsstdrungen , insbesondere

das Recht des Riicktritts und der Gefahrtragung.

ONO, Shusei

In der heutigen Welt gibt es verschiedene Systeme der Leistungsstorungen.

Genannt seien die Rechtsinstitute der ine.∬ecution im franzosischen Code civil, der

Unmoglichkeit und des Verzugs im deutschen BGB sowie derfrustration und

impossibility im englischen Recht.

Zwar stiltzt sich das japanische Zivilgesetzbuch (JBGB) originar auf das Sys-

tern des franzosischen Rechts : failure of performance (furikou, non-

perfoγmance, inexecution dobligation). AUer血I唱s iibte bis Anfang der

zwanziger Jahre (20.Jh.) die deutsche Rechtsdogmatik groβen Einfluβ auf das ja-

panische Recht, msbesondere auf dem Gebiet des Privatrechts, aus. Daher ist der

Begriff "failure of per,プbrmance " im Sinne der deutschen Begriffe Unmoglicl:止eit ,

Verzug und positive Forderungsverletzung zu verstehen, also dann auch der Begriff

und die Wirkungen des Riicktritts. Ich mochte hier kurz die Entwicklung und den

Wandel des Leistungsstorungsrechts , insbesondere des Riicktrittsrechts in Japan

erlautern.

msbesondere im Rucktrittsrecht gibt es vier Rechtsprobleme (von allge一

meiner LeistungsstCirungsrecht , vgl. O柁O , Die Entwicklung des Lei-

stungsstorungsrechts in Japan aus Rechtsvergleichβ柁der Sicht, Hitotsubashi

Journal Law & Politics, Vol.30, 2002, p. 15}.

(i) Das Riicktrittsrecht karm sich aus vertraglicher Abrede Oder aus einer

Pflichtverletzung der Parteien ergeben (Vgl.昏346 a.F.BGB). JZGB hat aUerdings

die Regelung aus gesetzlichem Riicktritt f§545 I) , fii) Das Ziel des Riicktritts, die

vor dem Vertragsschluβ bestehende Rechtslage wiederherzustellen, kann nicht er-

reicht werden (喜818 III BGB =与713 JZBG), wenn die empfangene Sache unter-

gegangen, wesentlich verschlechtert, verbraucht, verarbeitet oder verauβert wor-

1243

(498)

den ist. Vgl.喜350a.F. BGB =昏548 II JZGB ;昏喜351-353 a.F. BGB = 548 I ZBGB. (iii)

Es ist wichtig, zu entscheiden, unter welchen Voraussetzungen der Riickgewahr-

schi山Iner, der die empfangene Sache nicht Oder nur verschlechtert herausgeben

kann, WerLoder Schadensersatz zu leisten hat. Vgl.与346 n.F.BGB =喜545 JZGB.

fiv) Die Regelung des Riicktrittausschlusses und der Schadens- und Werter-

satzpfucht betrifft zugleich die Grundsatzfproblem der Gefahrtragung. Vgl.蚤346 n.F.

BGB =与545 JZGB (gesetzliches Riickgewahrschuldverhaltr止S).

Das deutsche Schuldrechtsmodernisierungsgesetz 2002 hat neue Fassung

des　§346 gegeben. In der Regel hat der Schuldner Wertersatz statt der Rtickge-

wahr oder Herausgabe zu leisten (隻 346 II).

Das japanische Recht kennt einen eiuheitlichen Haftungsbegriff. Unser Be-

griff "Furikou " (inexecution, non-performance) kann als Voraussetzung der all-

gemeinen Leistungsstorungen geniigen. Zu beachten ist aber, dass die Begriffe der

Unmoglichkeit und des Verzugs nach wie vor eine grope Rolle spielen konnen. Ihre

Bedeutung muβ nicht immer auf die Geschichte begrenzt bleiben. Weil jeder ein-

heithche Begrrffe (nicht nur mexecution, non-performance oder NichtermIlung,

sondern auch Breach of Contract , Pflichtverletzung oder Leistungsstorungen) ten-

denziell zu weit und einfach ist, bedarf er stets funktioneller f壬il飴mittel.

1244

(499

Consumer Protection in Malaysia

(Consumer Protection Act 1 999)

TAKIZAWA, Masahiko

Although there are other laws for consumer protection in Malaysia, the

Consumer Protection Act (CPA) of 1999 is a very comprehensive, and therefore

very important law.

1. It (CPA) prohibits misleading or deceptive conduct in trade, and regulates the

safety of goods and services , including product liability. Contraventions of these

provisions will be an offence, and render the offender liable to且ne or imprisonment.

2. Under the CPA, in respect of supply of the goods and services, certain guaran-

tees, for example those concerning acceptable quality, are implied, and if the goods

or services fail to comply with the implied guarantees, consumers have the right of

redress against the supplier or manufacturers. They can require any failure to be

remedied, or alternatively, reject the goods and obtain damages.

3. CPA establishes the National Consumer Advisory Council and the Tribunal for

Consumer Claims, the latter being a sort of small claim court specialized in con-

sumer affairs. Its decision is final, and may be enforced as an order of a Magistrate's

Court.

In tt止s article, I made an overview of the CPA, and attached a Japanese

translation of it.

1245

500

Harm Caused by Media Reporting in Australia:

An Overview and Analysis of the

Azaria Chamberlain Case

MIDDLETON, John

In August 2005, Australia commemorated the twenty-fifth anniversary of the

beginning of the Azaria Chamberlain case, the most controversial miscarriage of

justice in Australian legal history. This case is known throughout the English-

speaking world as one of the most notorious examples of trial by media and pro-

vides a wealth of material for researchers studying the various problems associated

with the c血血nal justice system, media ethics, religious discrimination, and gender

bias. Indeed, it clearly illustrates what journalists , governments, police , prosecu-

tors, forensic scientists, criminal defendants, and juries should do and not do m

such circumstances.

Notwithstanding the creation of several legal precedents intended by the

Northern Territory Government and federal courts to address and overcome the

various injustices which occurred in this case, some important matters have yet to

be resolved to the satisfaction of the principal victims, the Chamberlain farldy. In

that respect, this case can be said to be still continuing today.

In this article, I present an overview of the facts of this case from the per-

spective of harm caused by media reporting and analyse those findings from several

angles. In doing so, I hope to raise awareness of the danger that unethical news re-

porting poses to both the individual and society as a whole.

1246

(501)

Local self government in a period of decentralization (4)

USUI. Kazunari

In America, by the 1960s, it was assumed that persons of good will and

sound judgment would arrive at the same understanding regarding public interest.

Therefore what was necessary was to put affairs in the hands of the few who were

qualified persons and whose trah血g, experience, natural ability, and devotion to

public service would see them best-equipped to manage the public business. In Ad-

dition, administrative agencies have experienced tremendous growth in discretion-

ary authority.

However, by the late 1960s and early 1970s, American people had turned

against science and technological rationality as instruments of humar山arian change.

It was claimed that science itself was po止tical and that even scientific systems re-

quired subjective starting points. As the professional ability to provide objective so-

lutions was increasingly called into question, American people came to make an

about-face on justice. They began to praise either the advent of laissez-faire indi-

vidualism or a decentralization of administrative authorities.

1247

(502)

Neue Gedanken zum gerichtlichen Gestandnis im

Zivilproze ss

KAWANO , Kenichiro

In der Zivilprozessordnung (ZPO) gibt es nur einzige Vorschrift uber das

gerichtliche Gestandnis (g. G.) , danach das Gericht keines Beweises bedarf, urn die

gerichtliche gestandene Tatsache festzustellen (与179 ZPO). Dabei hat es zwei ver-

schiedenen Bindungswirkungen : Beweisausschlusswirkung an das Gericht und

Widerrufsverbot zwischen den Parteien. Herschende Meinung rechtfertigt diese

Wirkungen mit zwei verschiedenen Begriindungen : die Bindungswirkung an das

Gericht durch das Verhandlungsmaxime und Widerrufsverbot zwischen den

Parteien mit Estoppel. Diese Rechtfertigung hat meines Erachtens nach deshalb

keine Uberzeugungskraft, weil das g. G. ein rechtliches Instrument ist und als sol-

che begrundet werden muss , das im gerichtlichen Verfahren die Streitpunkte

zwischen den Parteien durch Vermgungsakt redziert und die Beweisaufnahme ilber

die gestandigen Tatsachen ausschlie鮎. Dogmengeschichtlich wiLIrde das g. G. unter

den Weckselseitigenverhaltnisse als eine W:止Iensakt zur prozessualen Verfiigung

emer Partei ausgestaltet.

Nach geltender ZPO gilt ein konzentrier Verfahrensbetrieb (昏182 ZPO).

Dazu muss man im Verfahrensablauf zwischen der Behauptungsphase und der

Beweisaufnahmephase unterscheiden. Dabei bezieht das g. G. sich mit einer

genchtlichen Handlung einer Partei in der Behauptungsphase und nicht in der

Beweisaufnahmephase.

Das g. G. muss man als ein Verfi鴫ungsakt der Partei mit Selbstverantwor-

tung ansehen. Damit kann man dem g. G. die Prozessforderungsfunktion ansehen.

1248

(503)

L'obligation de motivation dans le droit des contrats

KOBAYASHI, Kazuko

Cette etude intitulee 《L obligation de motivation dans le droit des con-

tratsサvise a proposer certaines approches pour justifier l'obligation de motivation

en droit des contrats.

Jusqu'a present au Japon, les travaux de recherche existants sur robligation

de motivation ne la traitent que selon une approche concrとte au cas par cas, et leur

portee reste relativement limite'e. J ai entrepris cette etude dans l espoir de combler

quelque peu cette lacune qui subsiste dans la recherche au Japon sur la nature et la

fonction de l'obligation de motivation dans la th^orie generate des contrats.

A cette丘n, il m'a semble interessant et signmcatif d etudier la situation ac-

tuelle en France. En France, outre que le fait que les cas ou l'obligation de motiva-

tion est exigee sont d'une mamere generate plus nombreux qu au Japon ; quelques

thとses r^centes proposent de synthetiser 1 obligation de motivation en droit des

contrats. II m a para necessaire de focahser mon attention sur ce phenomとne aim

de bien saisir les Evolutions actuelles du debat sur 1 obligation de motivation. Mon

objectif final est de demontrer la possibilite de repenser et reconstruire la theone

generate du droit des contrats en y introdi血sant une nouvelle dimension : 1 obliga-

tion de motivation.

1249

(504)

Verifying the Effectiveness of the Oversight System

of the United Nations-Case Study from the Iraq Oil

for Food Program

HASUO , Ikuyo

The research question of my thesis is to verify whether the oversight system

of the United Nations (UN) functions effectively by analyzing a case study on the

Iraq Oil for Food Program (OFFP). The thesis focuses on evaluating the function of

the Internal Audit Division of the Office for Internal Oversight Service (OIOS) in

the UN Secretariat, which was a lead auditor of the OFFP.

The standard of evaluation adopted in the thesis is a so-called institutional

requirement of the audit, as follows : 1) the concept of independence of the auditor

institution or auditors from any influential powers and 2) the existence of an appro-

priate audience for the auditors'reports that not only read them but are also capa-

ble of acting based on the findings and the recommendations of the reports and of

hold血g the audited accountable to the audience.

The effectiveness of the oversight functions of the UN in the case of the

OFFP is to be evaluated from the perspective of the two aforementioned institu-

tional requirements. In this context, the functional reporting line of the internal UN

audit is to be analyzed if the reporting mechanism is duly constructed in order to

respond to the requirements of independence. The current structure of the audi-

ence of the UN is also to be analyzed in order to testify whether the audience is ca-

pable of holding the audited accountable to the audience. The findings will be

drawn from analysis of the case study of the OFFP.

In conclusion, based on the findings of the case study, the deficiencies of the

UN oversight system will be identified. The recommendations by the Independent

Inquiry Committee into the OFFP are to be evaluated if they are appropriately di-

rected to effectively reinforce the functions of the oversight systems.

1250

(505)

Limitation of Human Rights in the National Interest

and "The Basis of Human Rights" : A Study of the

Standards for Restricting Human Rights Based on

Evolutionary Biological Group Theory

NAITO , Atsushi

Human rights have existed from the time when mar止ind was in a state of na-

ture and nations had yet to be established. Such rights were recognized as being

held by all people on the basis of their personal autonomy as human beings. This

view of human rights is commonly held by constitutional scholars and lawyers in Ja-

pan.

According to this explanation, it is understood that human rights may be re-

stricted only to coordinate each person's rights and not in order to promote the m-

terests of a particular group or nation. However, I w.山demonstrate that we should

acknowledge, and in fact have been acknowledging, that there can be山nutations on

human rights due to national interest by examining cases of the leaking of national

secrets and desecration of foreign national emblems and flags.

How, then, can we reconcile such limitations with the definition of human

rights as being based on human personal autonomy and pre-existing the establish-

ment of nations? National interest cannot be interpreted as being included m a co-

ordination of human rights as the only condition for restricting them, as acknowl-

edged by the "pre-national" theory of human rights. We must, therefore , examine

the basis of human rights from another perspective in order to reconcile more ef-

fectively the relationship between the protection and limitation of human rights and

thestate.

To solve tl止s inconsistency, I present a new theory explainhg, from an evo-

lutionary biological perspective, that the concept of human rights is based on "the

distribution of minimal opportunities of reproduction to all members of a group,

1251

(506)

wI止ch is the universal requirement for ensuring the continued existence of the

group. This theory indicates that minimal opportm心ties of reproduction (including

the chances to gain resources for living and reproduction) must be distributed to all

members of a group in order to ensure its continued existence and stability. Hu-

man rights represent the standard of reproduction opportunities which should be

distributed to all members of a state. According to this theory, securing human

rights is a means of ensuring the continued existence and stability of the state (and

a means of achieving their ultimate goal of ensuring opportunities for each member

of the state to obtain reproduction resources) and the exercise of rights in conflict

with a particular state's existence should be restricted. By adopting this theory of

the basis of human rights rather than a pre-national, autonomic one, I justify the

placement, in the national interest, of limitations on human rights , which shoi止d

otherwise be accorded the utmost respect.

1252

(507

Litigation and Settlement of Transatlantic

E conomic Disputes

CHIBA, Daina

As international interdependence grows, desputes are prone to arise between

sovereign states over broad issues. In resolving these disputes, a growing number of

states have submitted their cases to third party arbitration facilitated by mterna-

tional organizations. When and how does such third party arbitration succeed m se-

curing interstate cooperation? This article examines the patterns of litigation and

settlement of trade disputes between the two economic giants : European Union

(EU) and the United States. Drawing on all EU-US disputes filed under the World

Trade Organization (WTO) from 1995 through 2000, 1 empirically explore the fac-

tors that prevent the disputants from acl止eving a mutually satisfactory agreement. I

consider the following ; not among the disputants but inside the disputant state :

(1) transaction costs that arise during the arrangement of plea-bargaining and (2)

division of interest. The statistical finding suggests that the existence of interest-

division inside the defending party would decrease the probability of effective set-

tlement before the final adjudication given by the third party.

1253

(508)

The Perceptions of Korea in the Japanese Media,1904-1 905

KATAYAMA, Yoshitaka

This paper focuses on the perceptions of Korea in the Japanese media from

February 1904 to November 1905. The main purpose of this paper is to investigate

the reactions to the Japanese-Korean Agreement, The Second Anglo-Japanese Alii-

ance, and to analyze the logic of the justification of Japan s domhation of Korea in

the Japanese press.

Though some press sympathized with the international status of Korea,

much of it took a firm attitude towards foreign countries, especially Korea, during

the Russo-Japanese War. Moreover, as Korea was considered an uncivilized state.

the press justified its domination by Japan according to Japanese superiority in

terms of civilization.

1254

(509)

A Theory of the Constitutional Status of

the Right to Privacy

MIYASHITA, Hiroshi

The purpose of tl心s article confirms justification of the constitutional status

of a right to privacy. Distinguished from that of tort, the right to privacy of consti-

tutional law is generally directed against the invasion of pnvacy by state action, not

by private action.

The dawn of the right to privacy in constitutional law was traditionally un-

derstood in Griswold v. Connecticut. This article, however, takes a cue from

Pierce v. Society of Sisters and Meyer v. Nebraska. These two decisions, taken

during the Lochner-era establish the baseline of dichotomy between pnvate and

public spheres. Moreover, this private sphere is considered to be the largest con-

ception of the value of privacy.

This public-private boundary retains an important characteristic. Not only

does it protect private life from unwanted gaze by the state, and thus supports plu-

rality by e山r血ating the need for collective choice or an official public stance ; but

also keeps disruptive material outside the public arena. The public domain should

not be privy to the disruptive theme ; hence the right to privacy is required for such

to be kept in the pnvate domain. This way of supporting the public-private distinc-

tion is consistent with the logic of Pierce and Meyer. What is not public is private,

and the extent to the right to privacy in constitutional law is dependent on this dis-

tinction.

1255

510

The Origins of the Annexation War of East Timor and

the Australian Foreign Policy of 1974-1975

KIMURA, Tomohiko

The decolonization process of East Timor, a Portuguese colony, began when

the Portuguese Revolution erupted in late April 1974, and many of her colonies,

mainly in Africa, became independent. However, this process was disrupted with

the Indonesian invasion of Bast Timor in 7 December 1975, leading to the annexa-

tion of the territory in July 1976. Was this forced annexation inevitable? This paper

will discuss the period of tl止s annexation process, focusing on the attitudes and

policies of Australia, which played an important role in respect to this issue as an

influential neighboring country. We will examine this process, dividing it止ito three

phases ; until October 1974, from October 1974 to August 1975 and from Septem-

ber to December 1975, referring to the development of the events and using cur-

rently available diplomatic documents of Australia and other documents.

The Australian government, in contact with both East Timor's political lead-

ers and Portuguese government, was requested to cooperate with them and to get

involved in the issue of decolonizing Portuguese Timor. Domestically, there had

been strong public opinion as well as argument within both the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs and the Ministry of Defence, for active involvement to avoid military inter-

vention, and to promote the proper self-determination of T止nor. However, PrhIe

Minister Whitlam, closely advised by Ambassador Woolcott to Indonesia, tried to

pursue closer ties with Indonesia and other Southeast Asian nations by showing an

understanding attitude towards the annexation following a summit meeting with

President Suharto in September 1974. For this same reason, the Australian govern-

merit continued a policy of non-engagement towards East Timor while receiving

military intemgence from the Indonesian Army. Suharto, who had previously shown

reluctance for military intervention in consideration of international criticism and

moral issues, began to approve extensive military action ; based on the will of Gen-

eral Benny Murdard in October 1975. Although the annexation conflict of Timor

had been a war planned by the Indonesian government under the strong influence

of the military, who successfully seized the opportunity of the Portuguese retreat,

the Australian government can arguably be deemed partly responsible for it, as it

could have exerted significant influence to avoid the bloodshed.

1256