Post on 17-Mar-2022
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Douglas J. FutuymaState University of New York at Stony Brook
EvolutionDas Original mit
bersetzungshilfen
Chapter 19 (Evolution of Genes and Genomes)by Scott V. Edwards, Harvard University
Chapter 20 (Evolution and Development)by John R. True, State University of New York at Stony Brook
Ubersetzung von Andreas Held
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Evolutionsbiologie 1
Der Stammbaum des Lebens: Klassifikation und Phylogenie 17
Evolutionsmuster 43
Evolution in den Fossilbelegen 67
Eine Geschichte des Lebens auf der Erde 91
Die Geographie der Evolution 117
Die Evolution der Biodiversitat 139
Die Entstehung der genetischen Variability 161
Variability 189
Genetische Drift: Evolution nach dem Zufallsprinzip 225
Natiirliche Selektion und Anpassung 247
Die genetische Theorie der naturlichen Selektion 269
Die Evolution phanotypischer Merkmale 297
Konflikt und Kooperation 325
Arten 353
Artbildung 379
Fitness: Fortpflanzungserfolg 405
Coevolution: Die Evolution von Wechselbeziehungenzwischen Arten 429
Die Evolution von Genen und Genomen 449
Evolution und Entwicklung 473
Makroevolution: Evolution oberhalb der Artebene 501
Evoiutionswissenschaft, Kreationismus und Gesellschaft 523
Contents
Evolutionary Biology 1What Is Evolution? 2Before Darwin 4Charles Darwin 6Darwin's Evolutionary Theory 7Evolutionary Theories after Darwin 8The Evolutionary Synthesis 9
Fundamental principles of evolution 9
Evolutionary Biology since the Synthesis 11Philosophical Issues 12Ethics, Religion, and Evolution 12Evolution as Fact and Theory 13
2 The Tree of Life:Classification andPhytogeny 17
3Patterns of Evolution 43Evolutionary History and Classification 45Inferring the History of Character Evolution 46Some Patterns of Evolutionary Change Inferred from
Systematics 48Most features of organisms have been modified from
pre-existing features 48Homoplasy is common 51Rates of character evolution differ 54Evolution is often gradual 55Change in form is often correlated with change in function 55Similarity between species changes throughout ontogeny 56Development underlies some common patterns of morpho-
logical evolution 56
Phylogenetic Analysis Documents Evolutionary Trends 61Many Clades Display Adaptive Radiation 62
Classification 19Inferring Phylogenetic History 22
Similarity and common ancestry 22Complications in inferring phylogeny 23The method of maximum parsimony 25An example of phylogenetic analysis 28Evaluating phylogenetic hypotheses 29
Molecular Clocks 32Gene Trees 34Difficulties in Phylogenetic Analysis 35Hybridization and Horizontal Gene Transfer 39
4 Evolution in the FossilRecord 67
Some Geological Fundamentals 68Rock formation 68Plate tectonics 68Geological time 69The geological time scale 69
The Fossil Record 71Evolutionary changes within species 71Origins of higher taxa 71
The Hominin Fossil Record 79Phylogeny and the Fossil Record 83
CONTENTS v i i
Evolutionary Trends 83Punctuated Equilibria 84Rates of Evolution 86
5 A History of Lifeon Earth 91
Before Life Began 92The Emergence of Life 92Precambrian Life 94
Prokaryotes 94Eukaryotes 95Proterozoic life 96
Paleozoic Life: The Cambrian Explosion 97Paleozoic Life: Ordovician to Devonian 99
Marine life 99Terrestrial life 101
Paleozoic Life: Carboniferous and Permian 102Terrestrial life 102Aquatic life 103
Mesozoic Life 103Marine life 103Terrestrial plants and arthropods 105Vertebrates 107
The Cenozoic Era 109Aquatic life 109Terrestrial life 109The adaptive radiation of mammals 111Pleistocene events 112
6 The Geographyof Evolution 117
Biogeographic Evidence for Evolution 118Major Patterns of Distribution 119Historical Factors Affecting Geographic Distributions 121Testing Hypotheses in Historical Biogeography 123
Examples of historical biogeographic analyses 125The composition of regional biotas 128
Phylogeography 129Ecological Approaches to Biogeography 132
The theory of island biogeography 134Structure and diversity in ecological communities 134Community convergence 134
Effects of History on Contemporary Diversity Patterns136
7The Evolution ofBiodiversity 139
Estimating Changes in Taxonomic Diversity 140Estimates of diversity 140Rates 141
Taxonomic Diversity through the Phanerozoic 143Rates of origination and extinction 144Causes of extinction 146Declining extinction rates 146Mass extinctions 148Origination and diversification 151The role of environmental change 156
The Future of Biodiversity 157
8 The Origin of GeneticVariation 161
Genes and Genomes 162Gene Mutations 165
Kinds of mutations 166Examples of mutations 169Rates of mutation 171Phenotypic effects of mutations 174Effects of mutations on fitness 176The limits of mutation 178
Mutation as a Random Process 178Recombination and Variation 179Alterations of the Karyotype 181
Polyploidy 181Chromosome rearrangements 182
9Variation 189Distinguishing Sources of Phenotypic Variation 190Fundamental Principles of Genetic Variation in
Populations 192Frequencies of alleles and genotypes: The Hardy-Weinberg
principle 193An example: The human MN locus 194The significance of the Hardy-Weinberg principle: Factors in
evolution 196Frequencies of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes 197Inbreeding 197
VIII CONTENTS
Genetic Variation in Natural Populations 199Polymorphism 199Genetic variation in viability 199Inbreeding depression 201Genetic variation in proteins 202Variation at the DNA level 204Multiple loci and the effects of linkage 205Variation in quantitative traits 207
Variation among Populations 212Patterns of geographic variation 212Adaptive geographic variation 216Gene flow 216Allele frequency differences among populations 217Geographic variation among humans 219
7 / j Genetic Drift: EvolutionJL \J at Random 225
The Theory of Genetic Drift 226Genetic drift as sampling error 226Coalescence 227Random fluctuations in allele frequencies 229
Evolution by Genetic Drift 231Effective population size 231Founder effects 232Genetic drift in real populations 232
The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution 235Principles of the neutral theory 236Variation within and among species 238Do comparisons among species support the neutral
theory? 239
Gene Flow and Genetic Drift 241Gene trees and population history 241The origin of modern Homo sapiens revisited 243
11Natural Selectionand Adaptation 247
Adaptations in Action: Some Examples 248The Nature of Natural Selection 250
Design and mechanism 250Definitions of natural selection 251Natural selection and chance 251Selection of and selection for 252
Experimental Studies of Natural Selection 252Bacterial populations 252Inversion polymorphism in Drosophila 253Male reproductive success 254Population size in flour beetles 255Selfish genetic elements 256
Levels of Selection 257Selection of organisms and groups 257Species selection 258
The Nature of Adaptations 260Definitions of adaptation 260Recognizing adaptations 261
What Not to Expect of Natural Selection andAdaptation 264
The necessity of adaptation 264Perfection 264Progress 264Harmony and the balance of nature 265Morality and ethics 265
12The Genetical Theory ofNatural Selection 269
Fitness 270Modes of selection 270Defining fitness 271Components of fitness 272
Models of Selection 273Directional selection 273Deleterious alleles in natural populations 278
Polymorphism Maintained by Balancing Selection 280Heterozygote advantage 280Antagonistic and varying selection 282Frequency-dependent selection 283
Multiple Outcomes of Evolutionary Change 286Positive frequency-dependent selection 286Heterozygote disadvantage 286Adaptive landscapes 287Interaction of selection and genetic drift 287
Molecular Signatures of Natural Selection 288Theoretical expectations 288Examples 290
The Strength of Natural Selection 293
CONTENTS i x
13Evolution ofPhenotypic Traits 297
Evolution Observed 298Components of Phenotypic Variation 299How Polygenic are Polygenic Characters? 301Linkage Disequilibrium 303Evolution of Quantitative Characters 304
Genetic variance in natural populations 304Response to selection 305Responses to artificial selection 306
Selection in Natural Populations 308Measuring natural selection on quantitative characters 308Examples of selection on quantitative characters 309
A Neutral Model of the Evolution of QuantitativeCharacters 311
What Maintains Genetic Variation in QuantitativeCharacters? 312
Correlated Evolution of Quantitative Traits 312Correlated selection 312Genetic correlation 313Examples of genetic correlation 314How genetic correlation affects evolution 314
Can Genetics Predict Long-Term Evolution? 316Norms of Reaction 317
Phenotypic plasticity 317Canalization 319Evolution of variability 319
14Conflict andCooperation 325
Direct benefits of mate choice 333Sensory bias 333Indirect benefits of mate choice 333Antagonistic coevolution 337
Social Interactions and the Evolution ofCooperation 339
Theories of cooperation and altruism 339Interactions among related individuals 341
A Genetic Battleground: The Nuclear Family 343Mating systems and parental care 343Infanticide, abortion, and siblicide 345Parent-offspring conflict 345
Genetic Conflicts 346Parasitism, mutualism, and the evolution of individuals 348
15Species 353
A Framework for Conflict and Cooperation 326Levels of organization 326Inclusive fitness and kin selection 326Frequency-dependent selection on interactions 327Evolutionarily stable strategies 327
Sexual Selection 329The concept of sexual selection 329Contests between males and between sperm 330Sexual selection by mate choice 332
What Are Species? 354Phylogenetic species concepts 355The biological species concept 355Domain and application of the biological species concept 357When species concepts conflict 358
Barriers to Gene Flow 359Premating barriers 359Postmating, prezygotic barriers 362Postzygotic barriers 362
How Species Are Diagnosed 363Differences among Species 364The Genetic Basis of Reproductive Barriers 366
Genes affecting reproductive isolation 366Functions of genes that cause reproductive isolation 368Chromosome differences and postzygotic isolation 369Cytoplasmic incompatibility 370The significance of genetic studies of reproductive
isolation 371
Molecular Divergence among Species 372Hybridization 373
Primary and secondary hybrid zones 373Genetic dynamics in a hybrid zone 374The fate of hybrid zones 375
CONTENTS
16Speciation 379Modes of Speciation 380Allopatric Speciation 381
Evidence for allopatric speciation 381Mechanisms of vicariant allopatric speciation 383Ecological selection and speciation 384Sexual selection and speciation 386Reinforcement of reproductive isolation 387Peripatric speciation 389
Alternatives to Allopatric Speciation 392Parapatric speciation 392Sympatric speciation 393
Polyploidy and Recombinational Speciation 396Polyploidy 396Recombinational speciation 398
How Fast Is Speciation? 399Consequences of Speciation 401
17How to Be Fit:Reproductive Success 405
Individual Selection and Group Selection 406Life History Evolution 407
Life history traits as components of fitness 407Trade-offs 408
The Theory of Life History Evolution 411Life span and senescence 411Age schedules of reproduction 412Number and size of offspring 413The evolution of the rate of increase 414Male reproductive success 415
Modes of Reproduction 416The evolution of mutation rates 417Sexual and asexual reproduction 417The problem with sex 418Hypotheses for the advantage of sex and recombination 419
Sex Ratios, Sex Allocation, and Sex Determination 422The evolution of sex ratios 422Sex allocation, hermaphroditism, and dioecy 424
Inbreeding and Outcrossing 424Advantages of inbreeding and outcrossing 425
18Coevolution: EvolvingInteractions amongSpecies 429
The Nature of Coevolution 430Phylogenetic Aspects of Species Associations 431Coevolution of Enemies and Victims 432
Models of enemy-victim coevolution 434Examples of predator-prey coevolution 435Infectious disease and the evolution of parasite virulence 437
Mutualisms 439The Evolution of Competitive Interactions 441
Community patterns 443Multispecies interactions 444
19Evolution of Genesand Genomes 449
Evolution of Genes and Proteins 451Adaptive evolution and neutrality 452Sequence evolution under purifying and positive selection 453Adaptive molecular evolution in primates 454Adaptive evolution across the genome 456
Genome Diversity and Evolution 456Diversity of genome structure 456
Viral and microbial genomes: The smallest genomes 457The C-value paradox 458Repetitive sequences and transposable elements 459
The Origin of New Genes 461Lateral gene transfer 461Exon shuffling 462Gene chimerism and processed pseudogenes 463Motif multiplication and exon loss 464Gene duplication and gene families 465
Phylogenetic and Adaptive Diversification in GeneFamilies 468
Gene conversion 468Phylogenetic patterns following gene duplication 469Selective fates of recently duplicated loci 469Rates of gene duplication 470
CONTENTS x i
20 Evolution andDevelopment 473
Hox Genes and the Dawn of Modern EDB 474Types of Evidence in Contemporary EDB 478The Evolving Concept of Homology 479Evolutionarily Conserved Developmental Pathways 480The Evolution of Gene Regulation: The Keystone of
Developmental Evolution 484Modularity in morphological evolution 485Co-option and the evolution of novel characters 486The developmental genetics of heterochrony 488The evolution of allometry 489
Developmental Constraints and MorphologicalEvolution 490
The Developmental Genetic Basis of Short-TermMorphological Evolution 493
The Molecular Genetic Basis of Gene RegulatoryEvolution 494
Toward the EDB of Homo sapiens 496
21Macroevolution:Evolution above theSpecies Level 501
Rates of Evolution 502Rates of character evolution 502Punctuated equilibrium, revisited 502Stasis 504
Gradualism and Saltation 506Phylogenetic Conservatism and Change 508
Stabilizing selection 508Limitations on variation 509
The Evolution of Novelty 510Accounting for incipient and novel features 510Complex characteristics 512
Trends and Progress 513Trends: Kinds and causes 513Examples of trends 514Are there major trends in the history of life? 515The question of progress 518
Evolutionary Science,Creationism, andSociety 523
Creationists and Other Skeptics 524Science, Belief, and Education 525The Evidence for Evolution 528
The fossil record 528Phylogenetic and comparative studies 528Genes and genomes 529Biogeography 529
Failures of the argument from design 529Evolution and its mechanisms, observed 531
Refuting Creationist Arguments 532On arguing for evolution 537
Why Should We Teach Evolution? 537Health and medicine 538Agriculture and natural resources 540Environment and conservation 541Understanding nature and humanity 541
Glossar mit deutschenErlauterungen 545
Literature Cited 559
Index 585